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End of the Euro (À¯·ÎÀÇ
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Niall Ferguson (Professor at Harvard
University, Economics)
2010.06.15
¡¡
Crisis—from
the Greek "krisis," for a turning
point in a disease—is one of many
English words we owe to the ancient
Athenians. Now their modern
descendants are reminding us what it
really means. Just when it seemed
safe to start using the word
"recovery," a Greek crisis is
threatening the world economy, and
the very existence of the world's
second-biggest currency.
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The
euro seemed like such a good idea
just 10 years ago. Europe had
already achieved remarkable levels
of integration as a trading bloc, to
say nothing of its consolidation as
a legal community. Monetary union
offered all kinds of alluring
benefits. It would end forever the
exchange-rate volatility that had
bedeviled the continent since the
breakdown of the Bretton Woods
system of fixed rates in the 1970s.
No more annoying and costly currency
conversions for travelers and
businesses. And greater price
transparency would improve the flow
of intra-European trade.
10³âÀü¸¸Çصµ
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A single European
currency also seemed to offer a
sweet trade. European countries with
problems of excessive public debt
would get German-style low inflation
and interest rates. And the Germans
could quietly hope that the euro
would be a little weaker than their
own super-strong Deutsche mark.
´ÜÀÏȵÈ
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ÀúÆò°¡
µÇÁÖ¾úÀ¸¸é
ÇÏ´Â
°ÍÀ̾ú´Ù.
Monetary union had
geopolitical appeal, too. In the
wake of German reunification, the
French worried that Europe was
heading for a new kind of domination
by its biggest member state. Getting
the Germans to pool monetary
sovereignty would increase the power
of the other members over a
potential Fourth Reich. And, best of
all, it would create an alternative
reserve currency to challenge the
mighty U.S. dollar.
ÈÆóµ¿¸ÍÀº
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Still, when European
Commission president Jacques Delors
first proposed monetary union, it
seemed a wildly ambitious project.
Even when it was formally adopted as
the third pillar of the European
Union in the Maastricht Treaty of
1992, many economists—myself
included—remained skeptical.
ÇÏÁö¸¸
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ȸÀÇÀûÀ̾ú´Ù.
It was far from clear
that the 11 countries that initially
joined up constituted an "optimal
currency area." A single monetary
policy would likely amplify, rather
than diminish, the fundamental
differentials between highly
productive Germany and the less
efficient periphery.
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But the worst defect
in the design of the EMU, we argued,
was that it was uniting Europe's
currencies but leaving its fiscal
policies completely uncoordinated.
There were, to be sure, "convergence
criteria," which specified that a
country could join only if its
deficit was less than 3 percent of
gross domestic product and its
public debt was less than 60
percent. But even when these were
turned into a permanent set of
fiscal rules in the Stability and
Growth Pact, there was no obvious
way they could be enforced.
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The design of the EMU
illustrates a profoundly important
truth about human institutions. Just
because you don't create a formal
procedure for something you would
rather didn't happen, that doesn't
mean it won't happen. This was one
of the reasons Britain decided not
to join the single currency. A
confidential Bank of England paper
circulated in 1998 speculated about
what would happen if a
country—referred to only as "Country
I"—ran much larger deficits than
were allowed. The result, the bank
warned, would be a colossal mess.
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(Country 1À̶ó°í¸¸
¸í¸íµÇ¾î
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Çã¶ôµÈ
ÀûÀÚ¼±À»
Å©°Ô
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Çϳª?
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Why? Because the new
European Central Bank (ECB) was
prohibited from bailing out a
country with such an excess deficit
by lending money directly to the
government. Yet, at the same time,
there was no mechanism for Country I
to exit the monetary union. This
rigidity was one reason Harvard
economist Martin Feldstein foresaw
the single currency leading not to
greater harmony in Europe, but to
conflict.
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Make that "Country
G."
For nearly nine years
after Greece became the 12th EMU
member on Jan. 1, 2001, the
Cassandras appeared to have gotten
it wrong. The euro was a triumphant
success. Long-term interest rates
converged. True, the fiscal rules
were not tightly enforced—indeed,
none of the member states really
satisfied the convergence criteria
when the euro was launched in
1999—but the trends were healthy.
Deficits shrank. And although there
was less convergence of inflation
rates and economic performance than
had been hoped for, there seemed
little cause for concern. Not only
Europeans but the whole world took
to the euro. Between 1999 and 2003,
international banks issued more
bonds priced in euros than in
dollars. The countries that had
stayed out began to wonder if they'd
missed not just the bus but a luxury
coach.
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Then, in October
2009, a newly elected Greek
government fessed up. Greece's
budget deficit was in fact a
whopping 12.7 percent of GDP, as
opposed to the 6 percent reported by
the old government, and more than
three times the 3.7 percent promised
to the European Commission at the
beginning of 2009. It also turned
out that the ECB was indirectly
funding more than a third of Greek
government borrowing via its
emergency lending to Greek banks
(giving the lie to the supposed "no
bailouts" rule). The news set off
precisely the kind of chain reaction
the Euro-skeptics had always feared.
Lenders had always charged higher
interest on Greek bonds than German
bonds, even in the euro's golden
years, but that spread suddenly blew
out from about 1 percent to above 5,
and then 10. The country went into a
fiscal death spiral as rising
interest rates made the deficit even
larger (it's now up to 13.6 percent)
by increasing the costs of debt
service. In desperation, the Greeks
turned to their fellow Europeans for
assistance. That might have been
relatively cheap back in January,
but the German government hesitated.
In the midst of a global financial
crisis and a German recession, and
with regional elections fast
approaching, German voters were in
no mood to bail out foreigners who
had been fiddling with their fiscal
figures. But the longer the Germans
dithered, the higher the cost of a
Greek bailout rose.
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(Áö±ÝÀº
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Finally, at the end
of April, a deal was hammered out
whereby the Greeks received ¢æ110
billion, of which ¢æ30 billion came
from the International Monetary
Fund, and the rest from the other
euro-zone countries. In return, the
government in Athens committed to
strict fiscal retrenchment, pledging
to reduce the deficit to 3 percent
by 2014 with a mixture of spending
cuts and tax hikes.
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GDP
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3%·Î
ÁÙÀ̱â·Î
Çß´Ù.
Problem solved?
Unfortunately not. This Greek
tragedy has several more acts to
come.
±×·¯¸é
¹®Á¦°¡
ÇØ°áµÈ°Ç°¡?
ºÒÇàÈ÷µµ
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The first will be a Greek default.
It's simply not credible that the
government will be able to deliver
such severe fiscal tightening at a
time of deep recession. Even if
everything were to go according to
plan, the debt would peak at 150
percent of GDP, with a crippling 7.5
percent of GDP going on interest
payments. Greece manifestly lacks
the political will to do this.
Prediction: the government of George
Papandreou will fall and its
successor will inflict a 30 percent
"haircut" on holders of Greek bonds.
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GDPÀÇ
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GDPÀÇ
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30%
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The next act will be
even more dramatic. For what makes
the crisis in tiny Greece so serious
is the contagion effect—the
realization among investors that if
this can happen to Greek bonds, it
can happen to other bonds, too. A
scan of the data reveals two other
euro-zone countries with bloated
debts (Italy and Belgium) and
another two with Greek-style
overreliance on foreign lending
(Portugal and Spain).
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Last week the rating
agency Moody's placed Portugal's
long-term government bond Aa2 rating
on review for a possible downgrade.
And as Spain sold five-year bonds
paying 3.5 percent—compared with a
yield of 2.8 percent two months
ago—rumors swirled that Madrid was
seeking a bailout even bigger than
Greece's.
Áö³ÁÖ,
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Nor is this the only
way the Greek crisis can spread like
a virus throughout the European
economy. Their balance sheets
stuffed full of dodgy government
bonds, the Greek banks are heading
into Lehman Brothers territory. For
neighboring countries like Bulgaria
and Romania, which rely heavily on
Greek banks for funding, that spells
a credit crunch.
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Even more alarming is
the exposure of other EU banks to
Greek debt, which totals $193
billion, according to the Bank for
International Settlements. Factor in
the risk of copycat crises in
Portugal and Spain, and you begin to
see the outlines of a disastrous
Europewide banking crisis. The only
way out of that will be further
compromises by the ECB about the
paper it accepts as collateral.
Already last week it waived its
rules, continuing to hold Greek
bonds, despite their junk status. If
this continues, there is only one
way for the euro to go, and that's
down.
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Keep this in
perspective. When the euro was
launched back in January 1999, it
was worth less than $1.20, and for
most of its first three years it was
down below parity with the dollar.
So its recent slide from close to
$1.60 before the global financial
crisis to $1.27 last week is far
from unprecedented. But the way this
crisis is unfolding, further
declines seem likely. It will surely
be at least a year before investors
wake up to the fact that the fiscal
predicament of the United States is
actually worse than that of the euro
zone.
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The difference is, of
course, that the United States has a
federal system, while the euro zone
does not. In America, Texas
automatically bails out Michigan via
the redistribution of income and
corporation tax receipts. What the
Greek crisis has belatedly revealed
is that such fiscal centralization
is the necessary corollary of a
monetary union.
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Europe now faces a
much bigger decision than whether to
bail out Greece. The real choice is
between becoming a fully fledged
United States of Europe, or
remaining little more than a
modern-day Holy Roman Empire, a
gimcrack hodgepodge of "variable
geometry" that will sooner or later
fall apart.
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